The Balfour Declaration (dated 2 November 1917) was a letter from the United Kingdom‘s Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rothschild (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild), a leaderof the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.
His Majesty’s government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, itbeing clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewishcommunities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.[1]
The text of the letter was published in the press one week later, on 9November 1917.[2] The “Balfour Declaration” was later incorporated into the Sèvres peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire and the Mandate for Palestine. The original document is kept at the British Library.
Background
World War I
Further information: Timeline of World War I
In 1914, war broke out in Europe between Britain with allies and Germany, Austria-Hungary and later that year, the Ottoman Empire. The war on the Western Front developed into a stalemate. JonathanSchneer writes:
Thus the view from Whitehall early in 1916: If defeat was not imminent, neither wasvictory; and the outcome of the war of attrition on the Western Front could not be predicted.The colossal forces in a death-grip across Europe and in Eurasia appeared to havecanceled each other out. Only the addition of significant new forces on one side or theother seemed likely to tip the scale. Britain’s willingness, beginning early in 1916, to exploreseriously some kind of arrangement with “world Jewry” or “Great Jewry” must beunderstood in this context.[3]
Zionism
Further information: Zionism
In 1896, Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist livingin Austria-Hungary, published Der Judenstaat(“The Jewish State”), in which he asserted that theonly solution to the “Jewish Question” in Europe,including growing antisemitism, was through the establishment of a Jewish State. Political Zionism had just been born.[4] A year later, Herzl founded the Zionist Organization (ZO), which at its first congress, “called for the establishment of a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law”. Serviceable means to attain that goal included the promotion of Jewish settlement there,the organization of Jews in the diaspora, the strengthening of Jewish feeling and consciousness, and preparatory steps to attain those necessary governmental grants.[5]
During the first meeting between Weizmann andBalfour in 1906, Balfour asked what Weizmann’sobjections were to the idea of a Jewish homelandin Uganda, (the Uganda Protectorate in East Africa in the British Uganda Programme), ratherthan in Palestine. According to Weizmann’smemoir, the conversation went as follows:”Mr. Balfour, supposing I was to offer youParis instead of London, would you take it?”He sat up, looked at me, and answered: “ButDr. Weizmann, we have London.” “That istrue,” I said, “but we had Jerusalem whenLondon was a marsh.” He … said two thingswhich I remember vividly. The first was: “Arethere many Jews who think like you?” Ianswered: “I believe I speak the mind ofmillions of Jews whom you will never seeand who cannot speak for themselves.” … Tothis he said: “If that is so you will one day bea force.”[6]
Two months after Britain’s declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, Zionist Britishcabinet member Herbert Samuel circulated a memorandum entitled The Future of Palestine to hiscabinet colleagues. The memorandum stated that “I am assured that the solution of the problem ofPalestine which would be much the most welcome to the leaders and supporters of the Zionistmovement throughout the world would be the annexation of the country to the British Empire”.
The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence
Henry McMahon had exchanged letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca in 1915, in which hehad promised Hussein control of Arab lands with the exception of “portions of Syria“ lying to the westof “the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo“. Palestine lay to the southwest of the Vilayetof Damascus and wasn’t explicitly mentioned. That modern-day Lebanese region of the Mediterraneancoast was set aside as part of a future French Mandate. After the war the extent of the coastalexclusion was hotly disputed. Hussein had protested that the Arabs of Beirut would greatly opposeisolation from the Arab state or states, but did not bring up the matter of Jerusalem or Palestine. Dr.Chaim Weizmann wrote in his autobiography Trial and Error that Palestine had been excluded fromthe areas that should have been Arab and independent. This interpretation was supported explicitly bythe British government in the 1922 White Paper.
On the basis of McMahon’s assurances the Arab Revolt began on 5 June 1916. However, the Britishand French also secretly concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement on 16 May 1916.[7] This agreementdivided many Arab territories into British- and French-administered areas and allowed for theinternationalisation of Palestine.[7] Hussein learned of the agreement when it was leaked by the newRussian government in December 1917, but was satisfied by two disingenuous telegrams from SirReginald Wingate, High Commissioner of Egypt, assuring him that the British government’scommitments to the Arabs were still valid and that the Sykes-Picot Agreement was not a formal treaty.[7]
According to Isaiah Friedman, Hussein was not perturbed by the Balfour Declaration. On 23 March1918, Hussein wrote in Al Qibla, the daily newspaper of Mecca:[8]The return of these exiles [jaliya] to their homeland will prove materially and spiritually anexperimental school for their [Arab] brethren who are with them in the fields, factories,trades and all things connected to the land.
He called on the Arab population in Palestine to welcome the Jews as brethren and cooperate withthem for the common welfare.[9] Following the publication of the Declaration the British haddispatched Commander David George Hogarth to see Hussein in January 1918 bearing the messagethat the “political and economic freedom” of the Palestinian population was not in question.[7] Hogarthreported that Hussein “would not accept an independent Jewish State in Palestine, nor was I instructedto warn him that such a state was contemplated by Great Britain”.[10] Continuing Arab disquiet overAllied intentions also led during 1918 to the British Declaration to the Seven and the Anglo-French Declaration, the latter promising “the complete and final liberation of the peoples who have for so longbeen oppressed by the Turks, and the setting up of national governments and administrations derivingtheir authority from the free exercise of the initiative and choice of the indigenous populations.”[7][11]
Lord Grey had been the foreign secretary during the McMahon-Hussein negotiations. Speaking in theHouse of Lords on 27 March 1923, he made it clear that he entertained serious doubts as to thevalidity of the British government’s interpretation of the pledges which he, as foreign secretary, hadcaused to be given to Hussein in 1915. He called for all of the secret engagements regarding Palestineto be made public.[12] Many of the relevant documents in the National Archives were later declassifiedand published. Among them were the minutes of a Cabinet Eastern Committee meeting, chaired byLord Curzon,which was held on 5 December 1918. Balfour was in attendance. The minutes revealedthat in laying out the government’s position Curzon had explained that: “Palestine was included in theareas as to which Great Britain pledged itself that they should be Arab and independent in the future”.[13]
Sykes–Picot Agreement
Further information: Sykes–Picot Agreement
In May 1916 the governments of the United Kingdom, France and Russia agreed the Sykes–PicotAgreement, which defined their proposed spheres of influence and control in Western Asia should theTriple Entente succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The agreementeffectively divided the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire outside the Arabian peninsula into areasof future British and French control or influence.
The agreement proposed that an “international administration” would be established in an area shadedbrown on the agreement’s map, which was later to become Palestine, and that the form of theadministration would be “decided upon after consultation with Russia, and subsequently in consultationwith the other allies, and the representatives of the Sherif of Mecca”. Zionists believed their aspirationshad been passed over. William Reginald Hall, British Director of Naval Intelligence criticized theagreement on the basis that “the Jews have a strong material, and a very strong political, interest inthe future of the country” and that “in the Brown area the question of Zionism, and also of Britishcontrol of all Palestine railways, in the interest of Egypt, have to be considered”.
Motivation for the Declaration
British Government
James Gelvin, a Middle East history professor, cites at least three reasons for why the Britishgovernment chose to support Zionist aspirations. Issuing the Balfour Declaration would appeal toWoodrow Wilson’s two closest advisors, who were avid Zionists.
“The British did not know quite what to make of President Woodrow Wilson and hisconviction (before America’s entrance into the war) that the way to end hostilities was forboth sides to accept “peace without victory.” Two of Wilson’s closest advisors, LouisBrandeis and Felix Frankfurter, were avid Zionists. How better to shore up an uncertain allythan by endorsing Zionist aims? The British adopted similar thinking when it came to theRussians, who were in the midst of their revolution. Several of the most prominentrevolutionaries, including Leon Trotsky, were of Jewish descent. Why not see if they couldbe persuaded to keep Russia in the war by appealing to their latent Jewishness and givingthem another reason to continue the fight?” … These include not only those alreadymentioned but also Britain’s desire to attract Jewish financial resources.[14]
At that time the British were busy making promises. At a War Cabinet meeting, held on 31 October1917, Balfour suggested that a declaration favorable to Zionist aspirations would allow Great Britain”‘to carry on extremely useful propaganda both in Russia and America“[15]
The cabinet believed that expressing support would appeal to Jews in Germany and America, and helpthe war effort.[16] It was also hoped to encourage support from the large Jewish population in Russia.Britain promoted the idea of a national home for the Jewish People, in the hope that Britain wouldimplement it and exercise political control over Palestine, effectively “freeze out France (and anyoneelse) from any post–war presence in Palestine.”[17] According to James Renton, Senior Lecturer atEdge Hill University, an Honorary Research Fellow at University College London, and author of TheZionist Masquerade: the Birth of the Anglo-Zionist Alliance: 1914-1918 (2007), Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestinebecause “it would help secure post-war British control of Palestine, which was strategically importantas a buffer to Egypt and the Suez Canal.”.[18] In addition, Palestine was to later serve as a terminusfor the flow of petroleum from Iraq via Jordan, three former Ottoman Turkish provinces that becameBritish League of Nations mandates in the aftermath of the First World War. The oil officially flowedalong the Mosul-Haifa oil pipeline from 1935-1948, and unofficially up until 1954.
Weizmann-Balfour relationship
Lord Balfour’s desk, in theMuseum of the Jewish Diaspora, in Tel Aviv
One of the main proponents of a Jewish homeland in Palestinewas Chaim Weizmann, the leading spokesperson fororganized Zionism in Britain. Weizmann was a chemist whohad developed a process to synthesize acetone viafermentation. Acetone is required for the production ofcordite, a powerful propellant explosive needed to fireammunition without generating tell-tale smoke. Germany hadcornered supplies of calcium acetate, a major source ofacetone. Other pre-war processes in Britain were inadequate tomeet the increased demand in World War I, and a shortage ofcordite would have severely hampered Britain’s war effort.Lloyd-George, then minister for munitions, was grateful toWeizmann and so supported his Zionist aspirations. In his WarMemoirs, Lloyd-George wrote of meeting Weizmann in 1916that Weizmann:… explained his aspirations as to the repatriation of the Jews to the sacred land they hadmade famous. That was the fount and origin of the famous declaration about the NationalHome for the Jews in Palestine …. As soon as I became Prime Minister I talked the wholematter over with Mr Balfour, who was then Foreign Secretary.
However, this version of the story of the declaration’s origins has been described as “fanciful”, a fairassessment considering that discussions between Weizmann and Balfour had begun at least a decadeearlier. In late 1905 Balfour had requested of Charles Dreyfus, his Jewish constituency representative,that he arrange a meeting with Weizmann, during which Weizmann asked for official British support forZionism; they were to meet again on this issue in 1914.[19]
Jewish National Home vs. Jewish State
Further information: Homeland for the Jewish people
The records of discussions that led up to the final text of the Balfour Declaration clarifies some detailsof its wording. The phrase “national home” was intentionally used instead of “state” because ofopposition to the Zionist program within the British Cabinet. Following discussion of the initial draft theCabinet Secretary, Mark Sykes, met with the Zionist negotiators to clarify their aims. His official reportback to the Cabinet categorically stated that the Zionists did not want “to set up a Jewish Republic orany other form of state in Palestine or in any part of Palestine”.[20] Both the Zionist Organization andthe British government devoted efforts over the following decades, including Winston Churchill‘s1922 White Paper, to denying that a state was the intention.[21] However, in private, many Britishofficials agreed with the interpretation of the Zionists that a state would be established when a Jewishmajority was achieved.[22]
The initial draft of the declaration, contained in a letter sent by Rothschild to Balfour, referred to theprinciple “that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people.”[23] Inthe final text, the word that was replaced with in to avoid committing the entirety of Palestine to thispurpose. Similarly, an early draft did not include the commitment that nothing should be done whichmight prejudice the rights of the non-Jewish communities. These changes came about partly as theresult of the urgings of Edwin Samuel Montagu, an influential anti-Zionist Jew and secretary of state for India, who was concerned that the declaration without those changes could result in increasedanti-Semitic persecution. The draft was circulated and during October the government received repliesfrom various representatives of the Jewish community. Lord Rothschild took exception to the newproviso on the basis that it presupposed the possibility of a danger to non-Zionists, which he denied.[24]
Authorship
Sir John Evelyn Shuckburgh of the new Middle East department of the Foreign Office discovered thatthe correspondence prior to the declaration was not available in the Colonial Office, ‘although ForeignOffice papers were understood to have been lengthy and to have covered a considerable period’.” The’most comprehensive explanation’ of the origin of the Balfour Declaration the Foreign Office was ableto provide was contained in a small ‘unofficial’ note of Jan 1923 affirming that:
little is known of how the policy represented by the Declaration was first given form. Four,or perhaps five men were chiefly concerned in the labour – the Earl of Balfour, the late SirMark Sykes, and Messrs. Weizmann and Sokolow, with perhaps Lord Rothschild as afigure in the background. Negotiations seem to have been mainly oral and by means ofprivate notes and memoranda of which only the scantiest records seem to be available.[25]
In his posthumously published 1981 book The Anglo-American Establishment, Georgetown University history professor Carroll Quigley explained that the Balfour Declaration was actuallydrafted by Lord Alfred Milner. Quigley wrote:
This declaration, which is always known as the Balfour Declaration, should rather be called”the Milner Declaration,” since Milner was the actual draftsman and was, apparently, itschief supporter in the War Cabinet. This fact was not made public until 21 July 1937. At thattime Ormsby-Gore, speaking for the government in Commons, said, “The draft as originallyput up by Lord Balfour was not the final draft approved by the War Cabinet. The particulardraft assented to by the War Cabinet and afterwards by the Allied Governments and by theUnited States…and finally embodied in the Mandate, happens to have been drafted by LordMilner. The actual final draft had to be issued in the name of the Foreign Secretary, but theactual draftsman was Lord Milner.”[26]
More recently, William D. Rubinstein, Professor of Modern History at Aberystwyth University, Wales,wrote that Conservative politician and pro-Zionist Leo Amery, as Assistant Secretary to the Britishwar cabinet in 1917, was the main author of the Balfour Declaration.[27]
Reaction to the Declaration
Arab opposition
The Arabs expressed disapproval in November 1918 at the parade marking the first anniversary of theBalfour Declaration. The Muslim-Christian Association protested the carrying of new “white and bluebanners with two inverted triangles in the middle”. They drew the attention of the authorities to theserious consequences of any political implications in raising the banners.[28]
Later that month, on the first anniversary of the occupation of Jaffa by the British, the Muslim-ChristianAssociation sent a lengthy memorandum and petition to the military governor protesting once moreany formation of a Jewish state.[29]
On November 1918 the large group of Palestinian Arab dignitaries and representatives of politicalassociations addressed a petition to the British authorities in which they denounced the declaration.The document stated:…we always sympathized profoundly with the persecuted Jews and their misfortunes inother countries… but there is wide difference between such sympathy and the acceptanceof such a nation…ruling over us and disposing of our affairs.[30]
Zionist reaction
Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow, the principal Zionist leaders based in London, had askedfor the reconstitution of Palestine as “the” Jewish national home. As such, the declaration fell short ofZionist expectations.[31]
British opinion
British public and government opinion became increasingly less favorable to the commitment that hadbeen made to Zionist policy. In February 1922, Winston Churchill telegraphed Herbert Samuel askingfor cuts in expenditure and noting:[32]
In both Houses of Parliament there is growing movement of hostility, against Zionist policyin Palestine, which will be stimulated by recent Northcliffe articles. I do not attach undueimportance to this movement, but it is increasingly difficult to meet the argument that it isunfair to ask the British taxpayer, already overwhelmed with taxation, to bear the cost ofimposing on Palestine an unpopular policy.
German and Ottoman reaction
Immediately following the publication of the declaration Germany entered negotiations with Turkey toput forward counter proposals. A German-Jewish Society was formed: Vereinigung jüdischerOrganisationen Deutschlands zur Wahrung der Rechte der Juden des Ostens (V.J.O.D.) and inJanuary 1918 the Turkish Grand Vizier, Talaat, issued a statement which promised legislation by which”all justifiable wishes of the Jews in Palestine would be able to find their fulfilment”.[33]
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